IgA Nephropathy
IgA nephropathy is a glomerulonephritis that is characterised by macroscopic haematuria. It is the most common cause of glomerulonephritis. The incidence peaks between 20 and 30 years, and is more common in men than women.
Post-streptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN)
Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) is an acute nephritic syndrome caused by an immunological response to group A streptococcal (GAS) infection. It is the most common cause of acute nephritis in children. The incidence peaks between 6 and 15 years of age. Boys are affected…
Acid-Base Balance
Overview The normal body pH is 7.35-7.45 (average 7.40). This slightly alkaline pH optimises oxygen delivery to tissues, enzyme activity, protein function, and biochemical reactions. Carbon dioxide (CO2) – a major byproduct of aerobic respiration – plays a major role…
Blood Gas Analysis (BGA)
Overview A blood gas analysis evaluates oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base status. It can be performed on arterial, venous, or capillary blood. Arterial blood gas (ABG) is the gold standard test for assessing partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2 – oxygenation), partial pressure of carbon dioxide…
Lupus Nephritis
Lupus nephritis is a severe manifestation of SLE that results in end-stage renal disease. WHO classification of Lupus Nephritis Class Description Nota bene Class I Normal kidneys Class II Mesangial glomerulonephritis Non-proliferative form Class III Focal and segmental proliferative glomerulonephritis Proliferative…
Hypoaldosteronism
Hypoaldosteronism causes poor sodium and water reabsorption leading to hypovolemic hyponatremia. It is commonly caused by Addison disease (autoimmune) and Waterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome (infectious)
Renal Artery Stenosis
Renal artery stenosis is narrowing of the renal artery, commonly due to atherosclerotic disease (80% ) or bilateral fibromuscular dysplasia in young women.
Renal Replacement Therapy
Renal replacement therapy is used to replace the filtering function of the kidneys during acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease.
Haemorrhagic Stroke
Haemorrhage accounts for ~ 20% of strokes. It is divided into intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) and subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). Haemorrhagic stroke is more severe than ischemic stroke since it creates mass effect faster than ischemic stroke (where edema peaks in 3 – 5 days). Aggressive blood pressure control…
Ischaemic Stroke
Ischaemic stroke is the most common cause of stroke (78%). For a patient who presents with stroke, thrombolysis +/- thrombectomy should be considered as soon as hemorrhagic stroke is ruled out. Presentation of ischemic stroke (in order of increasing severity) Cause Presentation Thrombotic…