Transient Ischemic Attack A transient ischaemic attack (TIA) is defined as neurological deficits that completely resolve within 24 hours. 80% of TIAs are due to thromboemboli and they occur almost exclusively in patients with symptomatic large vessel disease e.g. carotid…
Status Epilepticus This is a protracted seizure. By definition, status epilepticus is a seizure that has lasted for > 30 minutes without intervening consciousness (but in reality, it is considered if a seizure lasts > 5 minutes). The most common…
Febrile Seizures Febrile seizures are common in children aged 6 months – 5 years old. It peaks at 12 – 18 months. It is associated with temperatures higher than 38 C and is NOT the result of CNS infection or…
Anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) AEDs should only be commenced by a specialist after the diagnosis of epilepsy has been confirmed. The choice of AEDs depends on seizure types, comorbidities, lifestyle and the patient’s preference. All AEDs are teratogenic. Valproate is the…
Epilepsy Epilepsy is characterized by chronic seizures. It is characterized by Idiopathic (75%), Recurrent (2 or more), unexplained seizures. Epilepsy is the chronic condition of recurrent seizures (a single seizure does not diagnose epilepsy, not drug/substance/infection induced). The choice of…
Overview This is an infection of the kidney parenchyma that can be organ and/or life threatening and leads to scarring of the kidney. Complicated infection occurs in the following situations: Etiology Infection may have either: Clinical Presentation History The classic…
Nephrotic Syndrome Nephrotic syndrome is a collection of signs and symptoms indicating damage to the glomerular basement membrane and the podocytes. With most of the injury focusing on the podocytes. It is characterised: The causes of nephrotic syndrome can be…
Nephritic syndrome Nephritic syndrome is an inflammatory process that is defined as the presence of one or more of the following: Causes can be divided into infectious and non-infectious causes. Non-infectious causes can be further classified into primary causes and…
Overview Glomerular diseases affect the filtering units of the kidney, the glomeruli. They presents with proteinuria, hematuria or both and is usually diagnosed on a renal biopsy. They account for a significant proportion of acute and chronic kidney disease and…
Overview Prerenal failure is azotemia caused by poor perfusion of the nephrons. Low perfusion reduces glomerular pressure, which reduces the pressure difference between afferent arterioles and Bowman’s spaces. This ultimately leads to reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Reduced perfusion is…