Overview Acetylcholine (Ach)is the main neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system. It mainly works on muscarinic receptors (M1-5) in parasympathetic organs and nicotinic receptors (Nm and Nn) on autonomic ganglia and the neuromuscular junction. Drugs targets in cholinergic transmission Step Drug Target Examples Synthesis…
Adrenergic drugs are medications that act on adrenergic (adreno-) receptors. Adrenoreceptors are normally stimulated by adrenaline and noradrenaline. Adrenoreceptors and their effects Receptor Main organ Main Effect Mechanism α1 Blood vessels Smooth muscle contraction, vasoconstriction, and mydriasis Gq → ↑IP3/DAG →…
Overview Pharmacodynamics is the study of what a drug does to the body. It examines molecular, biochemical, physiological, and clinical effects. All drugs act by interacting with biological targets: receptors, enzymes, ion channels, transporters, DNA/RNA, and signalling proteins. It is derived from…
Overview Pharmacokinetics (PK) is the study of what the body does to a drug over time. Four major processes. Letter Process Definition A Absorption Entry of drug into bloodstream D Distribution Spread of the drug through the body compartments M Metabolism…
Caustic ingestion causes chemical injury to the upper gastrointestinal tract. It most commonly affects the oesophagus (alkali) and stomach (acid). 80% occur in children. It has a high morbidity and mortality. The severity of corrosive burns to the oesophagus depends on:…
The most common non-food objects ingested in children are coins. In adults, the most common objects are fish bones, dentures, and meat.
Lymphadenopathy is defined as a lymph node that is greater than 1 cm in diameter. Most cases of lymphadenopathy are related to infections: these resolve independently or after antibiotic treatment. Lymph node sites Lymph node site Area drained Cervical Head and…
Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR), also known as the silent reflux (no belching or vomiting), is the retrograde flow of gastric contents into the nasopharynx, oropharynx, or laryngopharynx. The effect of gastric acid on the larynx and pharynx causes an inflammatory response, which…
Cervicofacial necrotizing fasciitis (CNF) is an aggressive polymicrobial infection of the subcutaneous tissue and fascia of the face and neck. It is characterized by local ischemia (due to vascular thrombosis), which leads to necrosis and ulceration of the skin and soft tissue. Myonecrosis can…
Ludwig’s angina is a bilateral cellulitis involving the submandibular, submental, or sublingual spaces. The three characteristics of Ludwig’s angina can be remembered as the three F’s – Feared, Fatal, and rarely fluctuant. The most serious complications that make the condition rapidly fatal are airway obstruction due…