A transient ischaemic attack (TIA) is defined as neurological deficits that completely resolve within 24 hours. 80% of TIAs are due to thromboemboli, which occur almost exclusively in patients with symptomatic large vessel disease, e.g., carotid artery stenosis. A transient event is…
Status epilepticus is an emergency defined as continuous seizure activity for ≥ 5 minutes or recent seizures without recovery of consciousness between episodes. It can be convulsive or non-convulsive, and requires immediate treatment to prevent brain injury and death.
Febrile seizures are seizures associated with fever (> 37.8 C), and not due to underlying pathology such as epilepsy or infection. They are common in children aged 6 months to 5 years old. It peaks at 12 – 18 months. It is benign, affecting…
Seizure medications (anti-epileptic drugs) are the mainstay of treatment for epilepsy. They are initiated by a specialist, and chosen based on the type of seizure, patient factors, side effects, cost, and drug interactions. Classification according to mechanism Mechanism Examples Sodium channel…
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterised by idiopathic (75%), recurrent (2 or more), unprovoked seizures. Patients with epilepsy are usually physically normal and asymptomatic between events. It affects 1% of all people by age 20 and 3% by age 75%. Specific epilepsy syndromes Syndrome Age…
Overview This is an infection of the kidney parenchyma that can be organ and/or life threatening and leads to scarring of the kidney. Complicated infection occurs in the following situations: Etiology Infection may have either: Clinical Presentation History The classic…
Nephrotic syndrome occurs when the glomerular basement membrane and podocytes are damaged. It is characterised by: The causes of nephrotic syndrome can be broadly classified into primary causes, which encompass diseases that are intrinsic to the kidney, and secondary causes, which are systemic…
Nephritic syndrome is an inflammatory process that is defined as the presence of one or more of the following: Its causes can be divided into infectious and non-infectious types. Non-infectious causes can be further classified into primary causes and secondary causes. Causes of nephritic glomerulonephritis Category Causes…
Overview Glomerular diseases affect the filtering units of the kidney. They presents with proteinuria, hematuria or both, and are usually diagnosed on a renal biopsy. They account for a significant proportion of acute and chronic kidney disease and are the most common cause of end stage renal disease (the exception…
Prerenal failure is azotemia caused by poor perfusion of the nephrons. Causes of prerenal failure Pathology Cause Nota bene Reduced vascular volume Haemorrhage, hypovolemia, diarrhoea and vomiting, burns, pancreatitis, hypoaldosteronism (Addison’s disease), third-spacing (hypoalbuminemia) Dehydration and systemic hypotension are the most…