Knee Injuries
Anatomy of the Knee Joint The knee is a modified hinge joint that articulates the femur to the patella and tibia. It is ‘modified’ because it allows for some degree of internal and external rotation, in addition to flexion and…
Dr Jeffrey Kalei
Author and illustrator for Hyperexcision. Interested in emergency room medicine. I have a passion for medical education and drawing.
Parkinson Disease
Parkinson Disease Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that results in abnormalities in movement, autonomic function and cognition. It is caused by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, a nucleus that is involved in the…
Stroke Syndromes
Overview Major regions of stroke Region Area supplied Function MCA Lateral frontal lobes, temporal lobes, lateral anterior parietal lobes Upper body, language ACA Mesial and anterior frontal lobes, medial parietal lobes Lower body, pelvic floor musculature, sensory integration Ophthalmic artery…
Transient Ischaemic Attack (TIA)
Transient Ischemic Attack A transient ischaemic attack (TIA) is defined as neurological deficits that completely resolve within 24 hours. 80% of TIAs are due to thromboemboli and they occur almost exclusively in patients with symptomatic large vessel disease e.g. carotid…
Status Epilepticus
Status Epilepticus This is a protracted seizure. By definition, status epilepticus is a seizure that has lasted for > 30 minutes without intervening consciousness (but in reality, it is considered if a seizure lasts > 5 minutes). The most common…
Febrile Seizures
Febrile Seizures Febrile seizures are common in children aged 6 months – 5 years old. It peaks at 12 – 18 months. It is associated with temperatures higher than 38 C and is NOT the result of CNS infection or…
Anti-epileptic Drugs (AEDs)
Anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) AEDs should only be commenced by a specialist after the diagnosis of epilepsy has been confirmed. The choice of AEDs depends on seizure types, comorbidities, lifestyle and the patient’s preference. All AEDs are teratogenic. Valproate is the…
Epilepsy
Epilepsy Epilepsy is characterized by chronic seizures. It is characterized by Idiopathic (75%), Recurrent (2 or more), unexplained seizures. Epilepsy is the chronic condition of recurrent seizures (a single seizure does not diagnose epilepsy, not drug/substance/infection induced). The choice of…
Prerenal Failure
Overview Prerenal failure is azotemia caused by poor perfusion of the nephrons. Low perfusion reduces glomerular pressure, which reduces the pressure difference between afferent arterioles and Bowman’s spaces. This ultimately leads to reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Reduced perfusion is…
Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
Overview Chronic kidney disease is defined as kidney damage or decreased kidney function of < 60ml/min for > 3 months. It may be caused by glomerular, tubular or vascular injury which may be detected on urinalysis, ultrasound or renal biopsy.…